When a parent carries the invisible weight of a difficult childhood, does that burden shape the mental health of the next generation? A new study from Saarland University Hospital in Homburg, Germany, addresses this question in a clinical setting. Researchers examined 76 children and adolescents aged 6 to 17 who were being treated at a child and adolescent psychiatry outpatient clinic, dividing them into three diagnostic groups: 29 with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 32 with internalizing disorders such as depression and anxiety, and 15 with functional incontinence. Alongside each child’s diagnosis, the team measured the parents’ own adverse childhood experiences, their current parenting style, their level of parental stress, and the child’s psychological symptoms. The findings, published in Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, paint a nuanced picture in which a parent’s past matters, but not always in the ways scientists have assumed.

The concept at the heart of the study is the adverse childhood experience, or ACE. ACEs include emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction such as parental separation, domestic violence, substance abuse, or mental illness in the family. Decades of research have linked ACE exposure to elevated risks of obesity, chronic disease, depression, anxiety, ADHD, and socioeconomic disadvantage across the lifespan. More recently, scientists have turned to the intergenerational question: whether parents with high ACE loads are more likely to raise children with behavioral and emotional problems. Previous work has shown that children of parents with four or more ACEs display more behavioral problems and emotional disturbances, and that parental adversity has been associated with developmental delays and emotional dysregulation in offspring. One proposed mechanism is parenting behavior itself, since parents with a history of adversity may show harsher or more inconsistent discipline and reduced responsiveness.

What has been missing, the German team argues, is a comparison across different child psychiatric diagnoses in an actual clinical population, with fathers included rather than mothers alone. To fill that gap, parents completed the German version of the Adverse Childhood Experiences Questionnaire (ACE-D), a ten-item instrument covering abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction; the German Parental Stress Questionnaire (ESF), which measures parental stress, role restriction, social support, and partnership; the Eltern-Erziehungsstil-Inventar (EEI), a parenting style inventory assessing love and appreciation, strictness, independence, and religiousness; and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL 6-18R), a validated measure of child internalizing and externalizing symptoms. The researchers controlled statistically for the children’s age and sex, which differed substantially between the diagnostic groups, as expected given the typical demographics of these disorders.

The descriptive results revealed a striking gender pattern. Mothers reported a mean of 1.5 ACEs, compared with 0.9 among fathers, and 19.1 percent of mothers reported four or more ACEs, the threshold most strongly associated with health risks, versus 9.5 percent of fathers. Among mothers, the most common adversities were emotional neglect, emotional abuse, and parental separation, while fathers most frequently reported household mental illness, parental separation, and substance abuse. When the researchers compared the maternal figures with a representative German population sample, the clinical burden became even clearer: emotional neglect was reported by 26.5 percent of the mothers versus 13.4 percent in the general population, emotional abuse by 25.0 percent versus 12.5 percent, and childhood sexual abuse by 16.2 percent versus just 4.3 percent. The authors note that this selective overrepresentation points to relational and attachment-relevant forms of adversity as particularly concentrated in families seeking child psychiatric care.

The correlational findings sharpened the picture further. Parental ACE scores were significantly associated with child externalizing symptoms, the cluster of conduct problems, hyperactivity, and behavioral dysregulation measured by the CBCL, with a Spearman correlation of ρ = .386 (p < .01). ACE scores also correlated with parental stress (ρ = .257, p < .05). Notably, there was no significant association between parental ACEs and child internalizing symptoms, suggesting that the pathway from parental childhood adversity to anxiety and depression in offspring may depend more heavily on genetic, biological, or other environmental factors that this study did not measure. Just as telling, ACE scores showed no significant relationship with any dimension of parenting style, from warmth to strictness to encouragement of independence, indicating that childhood adversity operates as a distal rather than a proximal risk factor for how parents actually behave.

Parenting style did, however, differ between the diagnostic groups. Parents of children with ADHD reported significantly greater strictness than parents of children with internalizing disorders (p = .012). The authors interpret this as a likely response to the demands of raising a child with impulsivity, hyperactivity, and non-compliance, which can prompt firmer boundaries and structure, though they also note that the ADHD children were younger on average, and strictness tends to be higher with younger children. Parents of children with internalizing disorders reported lower strictness, a pattern consistent with cautious, protective adjustments to a perceived vulnerability in the child. Crucially, love and appreciation did not differ across the three diagnostic groups, suggesting that the emotional quality of the parent-child relationship remains largely intact regardless of the child’s diagnosis.

Love and appreciation emerged as one of the most consistent protective signals in the entire dataset. Higher parental warmth was negatively associated with internalizing symptoms (ρ = -.255, p < .05), externalizing symptoms (ρ = -.360, p < .01), and parental stress (ρ = -.341, p < .01). Parental stress itself correlated strongly with child externalizing symptoms (ρ = .570, p < .01) and with role restriction, the feeling of being personally constrained by the parenting role (ρ = .431, p < .01), while better co-parental partnership was linked to lower stress (ρ = -.395, p < .01). The overall group difference in parental stress was statistically significant after adjustment for age and sex (p = .040), with stress numerically highest in the ADHD group, but no individual pairwise comparison survived post-hoc testing, a reminder of the modest subgroup sizes involved.

The regression analysis delivered the study’s most consequential result. In a multiple regression model built on 61 families with complete data, child externalizing symptoms (β = .454, p < .001) and role restriction (β = .336, p < .01) were the only significant independent predictors of parental stress, together explaining 46 percent of the variance. The parental ACE score, which had correlated with stress in the bivariate analysis, was no longer significant once these two factors were accounted for. The authors interpret this attenuation as compatible with an indirect pathway: early adversity may set the stage for stress, but its clinical relevance materializes primarily through the interaction with a child’s current challenging behavior and the parent’s sense of role strain. They also flag an important methodological caveat, since role restriction and parental stress are subscales of the same questionnaire, so the association may partly reflect common-method variance rather than a fully independent predictive relationship.

The findings carry clear implications for clinical practice, though the authors are careful to frame them within the study’s limitations. The cross-sectional design precludes causal inference, the sample was small, particularly the functional incontinence subgroup of 15 children, parental psychopathology was not assessed, and the exploratory analyses were not corrected for multiple comparisons. The paternal data rest on only 21 fathers, and the maternal-paternal comparison was descriptive rather than formally tested. Nevertheless, the team argues that routine screening for parental ACEs in child psychiatric settings, especially for children presenting with externalizing symptoms, could identify at-risk families early and open doors to trauma-focused support. Because parental stress, rather than ACE history, was the strongest proximal correlate of family strain, interventions that reduce stress and role restriction while fostering warm, responsive parenting may benefit both parents and children. The consistent negative association between parental warmth and child symptoms across all three diagnostic groups suggests that supporting positive parent-child relationships is a meaningful target regardless of diagnosis, a conclusion that future longitudinal studies with larger samples and both parents systematically included will need to test.

Subject of Research: Associations between parental adverse childhood experiences, parenting style, parental stress, and child psychopathology across ADHD, internalizing disorder, and functional incontinence diagnostic groups

Article Title: Parental adverse childhood experiences, parenting styles, and stress: a comparison of child psychopathology diagnostic groups

Article References: Pfaff, K., Lion, S., Hussong, J., Honecker-Gebauer, H., & Möhler, E. (2026). Parental adverse childhood experiences, parenting styles, and stress: a comparison of child psychopathology diagnostic groups. Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 5, Article 1921885. https://doi.org/10.3389/frcha.2026.1921885

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.3389/frcha.2026.1921885

Keywords: adverse childhood experiences, ACEs, parental stress, parenting style, child psychopathology, ADHD, internalizing disorders, functional incontinence, externalizing symptoms, intergenerational transmission, Child Behavior Checklist, child and adolescent psychiatry